Lecture 3

Basic Research and Technological Development         

Are Basic Research and Technological Development the Same Thing?

Basic Research generates generalisable and replicable knowledge about nature.  It is usually performed in, or near, universities and the results are reproduced in refereed scientific journals.

Technological Development involves knowing how to solve the complex problems in designing, developing, testing and making useful artefacts (products, processes, services).  It is usually performed in business firms and the results are embodied in the artefacts themselves, and partially published in the patent literature.

Where Basic Research and Technological Development are Similar

• Both bodies of knowledge emerge in part from experimental activities in laboratories, and are performed by qualified scientists and engineers
• Large firms in some sectors make considerable expenditures on basic research, publish many scientific papers, and make major scientific discoveries (e.g. Nobel prizes for Shell,  IBM, ATT etc)
•  Basic research in some fields has a direct impact on technological practice (e.g. in contemporary molecular biology it is very difficult to differentiate science and technology, but in other sectors it is much easier)

Scientists use technology (instrumentation/apparatus) to artificially purify experiments and create predictable conditions where theories are tested

•  Scientific theories have limited predictive value outside atypical environments purified of external interactions (experiments, outer-space)

Technology operates in the complexity of the real world where theory generated in atypical laboratory conditions is a limited guide to practice.  Generating technology involves trial and error experimentation, (pilot plants and prototypes), and continues to be costly (2/3rds of R&D is D).

Science and Technology in Less Developed Countries

“Science and Technology should be viewed in terms of context-specific forms of knowledge and practice that interact with a subset of globally distributed social interest” Shrum &Shenhav (1995)

Process of Technological Development in Less Developed Countries (LDC)

• Majority of research is related to technology than science
• Technological development refer to
  • Transfer of technology across international boundaries
  • Generation and adaptation of technology with LDCs
  • The effect of technical change

Arguments concerning appropriate technology

Technology Transfer

• It denotes movements of artefacts and/or knowledge. Product and processes developed in other countries shifted to LDCs.
• From MNC….Not for the benefit of recipient country
• Its not a ‘stage’ in technological development
• Can be in the ‘First World’
• It is closely related to ‘diffusion of innovation’
• Artifacts are simply shipped between countries
• ‘Process’ takes place through direct investment (a wholly owned subsidiary), to independent licensees, through joint ventures
• The complexity of the product or production techniques
• Transfer environment in sender and recipient countries
• Absorptive capacities of the recipient firm
• Transfer capability/profit-maximizing strategy of the donor firm

Source: Baranson (1970)

State Intervention and Regulation

• India’s technology policies….because of its scientific community
• Government involvement in Science and Technology policy is evident in newly industrializing countries (South Korea, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Singapore, Mexico, Brazil)
• Industrial development….Technical development…Govt Investment (Japan)
• Hill (1986) notes the general acceptance of S&T indicators but a lack of influence of science and technology planners owing to an absence of ties to central decision makers

Technology Generation

• Technological capabilities in LDCs must be examined in more sophisticated and differentiated way
• Purchasing, plant operations, duplication of existing technologies, and innovation (Desai, 1988) are all form of knowledge and require detail study
• By late 1970s technologies were not simply “adopted” but “adapted” to the local environment (Teitel, 1977).
• The drive for self-sufficiency can result in poor productivity; foreign and local technological elements must be combined (Teubal, 1984).
• Firms that imported technology through licensing tended to complement this with more of their own R&D (Kumar, 1987)

Appropriate Technology and Technology Assessment

• Technology should be designed and assessed, adopted and adapted, with some concepts of basic needs in mind (Yapa, 1982)
• Negative consequences of capital-intensive technologies could be reduced or prevented by smaller, labour intensive technologies (Dunn, 1978)
• Appropriate technology is likely to be older technology from advanced countries, traditional technologies from the Third World, or recent technology that has been designed with local conditions in mind.
• Built-in limitations to the ability of LDCs to undertake technology assessment…..(Elzinga, 1981)
• ……interested in accelerated adoption (Randolph and Koppel, 1982)

Key Elements of Science & Technology Development

• Human Resources
• Various settings for conducting research and development
• Applications of results of R&D and technology development, which includes the linkage between R&D organizations and industry,
• S&T services, like Information, Standards, Testing and Quality Assurance, which includes employing ISO 9000/14000, etc.
• Globalisation, which include international liaison, etc; and
• Funding and Culture and Legal Support

S&T Indicators

• System of management and infrastructure
  • For different levels, different aspects of decision-making, policy and planning, coordination and performance.
• Human Resource Development
  • Educational system…….(Comparison with others..)
  • Stock of S&T manpower available in the fields of natural sciences, agriculture sciences, health sciences, engineering and technology
  • High-level S&T manpower working in the universities and other organizations engaged in S&T activities
• Funding of S&T
  • Nature, level and direction of funding of public-sector S&T organizations, including public-sector universities.
• Output of R&D Efforts
  • Pakistan’s R&D capability in the international perspective (…through research publication..)
  • Quantitative account of R&D achievements